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研究沉积体的三维演化过程,通常是基于露头或钻孔采集大量数据来进行多元地质统计建模(例如:Amour et al.[94]),但这种方法高度依赖于数据,所以只能在有限的程度上揭示影响沉积过程的地质规律。近年来基于地质过程的建模方法如地层正演模拟技术(Stratigraphic Forward Modelling,SFM)的进一步发展,为地质规律的验证和总结提供了更有效的思路[95]。
在碳酸盐岩沉积过程正演模拟中,需要调整各类参数以获得最符合实际情况的模型(图4)。在碳酸盐岩沉积过程正演模拟中使用的主要参数包括模拟区域的面积、初始地形、研究区构造沉降、全球海平面变化和沉积物供应等[96]。当物质来源稳定时,碎屑岩体系中的沉积物性质及沉积结构几乎是均一的,但由于碳酸盐岩沉积物的内源性(“carbonate are born, not made”[1]),即沉积物是由不同水深的“生产者”在原地产生,然后在波浪和重力的作用下被改造和运移的[97],所以碳酸盐沉积通常具有极强的非均质性。而碳酸盐工厂的概念为模拟碳酸盐沉积物的生产和搬运过程提供了理论支持。因此,在碳酸盐岩体系中运用基于沉积过程的地质建模方法时,除了考虑构造基底沉降、海平面变化、古地形、陆源碎屑输入、沉积物运移等因素,还需要关注由不同类型的碳酸盐工厂所控制的碳酸盐产率变化与其他环境因素的耦合关系(图4、表1)。例如,光照强度、温度、水深、波浪能和沉积物可容纳空间等因素均可以通过影响生物的生存状态从而间接影响工厂的发育[4,6]。虽然受限于现有模型及模拟方法,沉积过程正演模拟难以重建快速的环境变化所导致的碳酸盐生产及溶解过程,但在长时间尺度的研究中,将碳酸盐工厂及其演化过程纳入研究思路,可以深化对台地/盆地演化驱动因素的认识[101,117],进而深入揭示碳酸盐工厂在沉积过程中的重要作用。因此,对碳酸盐岩沉积过程进行正演模拟也是定量化厘定碳酸盐工厂及其主控因素的过程(图5)。
图 4 碳酸盐岩沉积过程正演模拟流程示意图
Figure 4. Flow diagram of forward modelling on carbonate sedimentary processes
表 1 碳酸盐岩沉积过程模拟实例
Table 1. Study cases for carbonate sedimentary process modelling
实例参数等 Al-Salmi et al.[98] Li et al.[99] van der Looven et al.[100] Tella et al.[97] Liu et al.[101] Barrett et al.[102] Burgess et al.[103] 段太忠等[95] 刘建良等[104] 黄渊等[105] 陆源碎屑 — — — — 基于钻井资料确定陆源碎屑输入的位置 — — — — — 温度 — — — — 利用氧同位素重建古海洋温度:T=16.9-4.2(δC-δW) +0.13(δC-δW)2[115] — — — — — 盐度 — — — — 利用碳氧同位素推算古盐度:Z=2.048(δ13C+50) +0.498(δ18O+50) — — — — — 沉积物搬运 简化的扩散方程:Q=Kwave×Ewave×S(Q:沉积物通量; Kwave:波浪扩散系数;Ewave:波浪能;S:坡度) 沉积物的搬运与地形坡度和扩散系数有关 简化的扩散方程:Q=Kgravity×S+Kwave×Ewave×S(Q:沉积物通量; Kgravity:重力扩散系数;Kwave:波浪扩散系数;Ewave:波浪能;S:坡度) 简化的扩散方程:Q=Kwave×S(Q:沉积物通量;Kwave:波浪扩散系数; S:坡度) — 利用剪切力和地形坡度模拟搬运过程:τtotal=τcurrent+τwave+τslope[116] — 基于扩散模型和水动力学方程 — 基于扩散模型和水动力学方程 时代 侏罗纪— 早白垩纪 早三叠世— 中三叠世 渐新世—中新世 中新世 晚埃迪卡拉世— 早寒武世 全新世 — 晚白垩纪 — 寒武纪 研究区 阿曼北部下白垩统碳酸盐岩台地 大贵州滩 马尔代夫群岛 Menorca岛碳酸盐缓坡 四川盆地中部德阳—安岳海槽 大堡礁 — 大巴哈马滩 — 塔河地区 沉积建造类型 镶边台地 孤立台地 孤立台地 缓坡 斜坡 孤立台地 分析海平面升降及碳酸盐产率对浅水不同岩相厚度的影响 孤立台地 台地—斜坡相(分析碳酸盐地层的完整性) 碳酸盐地层演化 软件 DionisosFlow DionisosFlow DionisosFlow DionisosFlow Sedsim CARBONATE 3D Dougal CARBSIM Sedsim iRDS-CarbSIMS 续表 -
碳酸盐的产率是决定碳酸盐工厂生产过程及碳酸盐岩沉积体形成过程的关键要素[46,118]。基于海水中CaCO3沉淀的质量平衡关系,通过碱度降低技术捕捉水体中CaCO3的实时变化,可以计算出海洋生物碳酸盐的产率(production rate)[46]。由于碳酸盐岩的沉积过程复杂,深时记录中的真实碳酸盐产率很难被准确估算[119]。Enos[118]根据沉积环境总结了前人报道的不同地区的沉积速率(sedimentation rate)(Enos所引用的数据为单位时间内沉积物的堆积厚度),包括浅海到远洋/深海的碳酸盐沉积速率,但也指出这些数据中除了单个珊瑚的生长速率和通过碱度测试得出的碳酸盐固定量是严格意义上的产率之外,其他的碳酸盐“产率”都近似于碳酸盐沉积物的积累速率(accumulation rate)(这里指碳酸盐沉积物的输入率及原地产率扣除通过沉积过路作用或侵蚀作用产生的碳酸盐沉积物输出率之后的净结果),真实的碳酸盐产率与碳酸盐沉积物的输入或输出率无关。在沉积过程模拟中通常使用碳酸盐沉积物的积累速率替代产率,研究者们按照实际情况给出了不同的数值范围(表1)。Pomar[4]根据不同的光照依赖性,区分出三种生产碳酸盐的生物群:透光带型、寡光带型和无光带型,并提出了这三种生物群的碳酸盐产率随水深变化的模型。Burgess et al.[103]认为碳酸盐岩台地的沉积过程中,透光带范围内合理的沉积速率是250~5 000 m/Myr。Seard et al.[120]根据Bosscher et al.[112]提出的生物礁生长方程,计算得出碳酸盐生产率随水深变化的曲线。Liu et al.[101]基于Smith et al.[46]、Sadler[121]以及Bosence et al.[122]的工作,将600 m/Myr作为全球透光带碳酸盐工厂产率的平均值。Montaggioni[113]通过对末次冰期以来印度洋—太平洋珊瑚礁系统发育过程的充分调查,认为在以骨架礁为主的沉积体系中,碳酸盐的产率介于1 000~30 000 m/Myr,绝大多数产率介于6 000~7 000 m/Myr。Sultana et al.[14]在探究碳酸盐工厂如何影响台地的形态时,将Chlorozoan工厂(一种包含钙质绿藻、造礁珊瑚和软体动物的,生活在浅水区域的生物群落)的碳酸盐沉积速率设定在3 740 m/Myr,用来表示在透光带中不同生物组合的产率。
不同碳酸盐工厂的产率可以影响沉积物的类型、岩石的结构类型、地层结构,以及沉积体的形态等。基于Pomar[4]的产率模型,Burgess et al.[103]在建模中设定了三个具有不同光照水平的碳酸盐工厂,占据主导地位的工厂会影响碳酸盐沉积物的产率、类型、进而影响岩石的结构类型,如透光带碳酸盐工厂趋向于生产颗粒灰岩(grainstone)、中光带碳酸盐工厂趋向于生产泥粒灰岩(packstone)和粒泥灰岩(wackestone)、寡光带碳酸盐工厂趋向于生产灰泥灰岩(mudstone)。Li et al.[99]通过敏感性分析发现,虽然碳酸盐的产率—深度变化曲线对碳酸盐岩台地尺度的几何形态变化产生的影响较小,但较为明显地影响了不同沉积相的分布以及特定沉积相的厚度。Tella et al.[97]利用敏感性分析的方法,证明不同光照条件分带对应的生物类型的相对含量是影响缓坡形态的关键因素,如寡光带异养生物占主导时可形成同斜缓坡或低角度缓坡,而透光带光合自养生物占主导时则可形成镶边缓陆棚。van der Looven et al.[100]对马尔代夫碳酸盐岩台地在渐新世—中新世的演化历程进行了正演模拟,揭示了多个碳酸盐工厂协作和相互依赖的生产机制,证明渐新世台地的淹没主要受控于碳酸盐工厂的破坏,而非相对海平面的变化。Cantrell et al.[123]通过建立水深和温度的模糊集来描述储层沉积过程的控制因素。Hawie et al.[124]在模拟阿布扎比陆上油田中三个主要储层的结构非均质性时,对复杂碳酸盐几何形状的变化进行了建模,结果表明碳酸盐岩几何外形的变化主要受碳酸盐产率的影响。
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一束单射光通过介质时,透射光强度的减弱与介质的厚度和浓度正相关(比尔—朗伯特定律,Beer-Lambert’s law)[125],因此,水体中的光照强度与水体深度和水体的透光性有关。Bosscher et al.[112]根据Chalker et al.[126⁃127]关于造礁珊瑚的光合作用量和骨骼生长速率的模型,结合比尔—朗伯特定律,提出了生物礁的生长速率方程:
G(z)=G(m)×tanh[I0×exp(-z/k)/Ik]
式中:G(z)是生物礁的生长速率,G(m)是生物礁的最大生长率,z表示水深,I0表示表面光强度,Ik表示饱和光强度,k代表消光系数,这一模型认为光照是影响全新世生物礁生长的最重要因素,而水深和水体浑浊度可影响光照强度,所以它们也是控制生物礁生长速率的关键因素。Pomar et al.[4,6]解释了不同深度生物群的栖息范围,在清澈的水域中,真光带生物群的最佳生存范围为20~30 m;寡光带生物群的最佳生存范围为50~100 m,水深变化可影响该区域内能进行光合作用的生物,从而控制碳酸盐岩的沉积过程。因此,也可用生物群落组合识别相应的水深。
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许多正演地层模拟软件都将温度作为一个控制浅水碳酸盐岩沉积体,如生物礁生长的因素[101,117,123]。温度在浅水区域对生物群的影响较大,如热带浅水碳酸盐工厂主要分布在纬度30° N~30° S或18 °C冬季等温线内,水体温暖[21]。Yao et al.[82]利用保存良好的腕足类方解石壳体的δ18O恢复了石炭纪晚维宪期到谢尔普霍夫期的古海水温度,发现后生动物生物礁的丰度急剧降低与晚维宪期的气候变冷事件是耦合的,且早于其他底栖生物多样性的减少,说明生物礁这一类重要的浅水碳酸盐工厂对于温度具有较高的敏感性。同时,在建模过程中也应当考虑温度对海水碳酸钙饱和度的影响,及其对碳酸盐岩的沉积成岩过程及分布的控制。
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波浪能量可从两方面影响碳酸盐工厂。首先,如果波浪不能驱散海水的浑浊物,增加到达海底的光照量,那么珊瑚等依赖光合作用的造礁生物也会进一步被限制生长[128];此外,波浪能量也是影响沉积物运移的重要因素,例如Dionisos作为应用扩散方程模拟的正演模型,在模拟沉积物运移过程时,将盆地坡度和波浪能量作为影响沉积物运移速率的参数[124,129]。除波浪外,现阶段仍缺乏关于潮汐影响碳酸盐沉积物搬运过程的模拟研究,值得在将来的研究中进一步讨论。
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容纳碳酸盐工厂发育的物理空间在正演模拟中是通过基底沉降和绝对海平面的变化之间的耦合来实现的[105]。沉积基底的初始形态、沉积基底的沉降、海平面的振荡都是制约碳酸盐工厂发育过程的重要因素,在碳酸盐工厂中,无论上述哪种情况造成的海进和海退都意味着沉积物的“原产地”环境条件可能发生改变,例如造礁生物的栖息地随相对海平面变化扩大或缩小,使得造礁生物群落的生存受到影响,进而影响了相关沉积体的组构、结构和形态,这在正演地层模拟中可以得到充分体现[97,100,130]。对于模拟中基底沉降的估算主要受地层年代的影响:地层年代越新,估算沉降量的准确性越高[95]。Lanteaume et al.[131]在正演模拟中给出了方程ΔS=(ΔT+ΔW)-ΔE(Δ单位时间,S沉降量,T模拟的沉积物累计厚度,W古水深,E海平面的升降),用来求导每个时间步长内沉积物的沉降量从而绘制沉降图。前人对不同时期,不同时间跨度的海平面变化的经典研究成果被广泛地用于正演模拟研究中(如Miller et al.[107];Haq et al.[108]),但需要根据具体研究区域在全球海平面变化的基础上进行微调,以适应区域性海平面变化的差异。Seard et al.[120]为了探究不同的海平面变化对珊瑚礁发育的影响因素,校正了不同振幅和时间步长的海平面振荡曲线。Liu et al.[101]的研究区地层年代跨越埃迪卡拉纪晚期至寒武纪早期,该时期处于冰室向温室的过渡期,因此,该研究中使用的海平面振荡曲线采用了由三级、四级和五级三种不同海平面震荡曲线拟合而成。当然,除海平面变化外,季风带来的洋流变化等对碳酸盐岩台地建造过程及形态的影响也不可忽视[132]。
此外,沉积物的压实作用也是影响沉积物可容空间的重要因素,但由于碳酸盐岩在沉积—早成岩期的胶结速率较快[13],所以在校准沉积可容空间时,要考虑碳酸盐沉积物与碎屑沉积物在压实作用方面的差异,及不同沉积相带的压实作用差异。
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对于沉积物的搬运过程,正演模拟技术在碎屑岩沉积体系中的应用发展较为成熟[133⁃135]。Pitman[136]根据Sloss[137]和Harbaugh et al.[138]的模型开发了一个适合碎屑岩沉积的几何模型[118]。而碳酸盐沉积物的搬运过程发生在沉积物原位产生之后,因此也会考虑使用和碎屑岩类似的搬运模式。Li et al.[99]利用正向地层模拟探究碳酸盐岩台地几何外形的形成因素,目标集中在沉积物的产生和运移过程,此研究针对三叠纪印度阶至拉丁阶大贵州滩的演化展开,并围绕MPD(最大生产深度),MPR(最大生产速率)和不同的运移参数,利用观测数据和模拟数据的厚度差异,台地边缘到坡脚的距离以及坡脚的最大倾斜角度表征模型在不同参数限制下所发生的形变,同时通过对不同参数的敏感性分析,认为搬运速率对碳酸盐岩台地形状的影响是巨大的。
然而,对沉积物搬运过程进行模拟时,需要注意松散的碳酸盐沉积物可以快速胶结[13],而这些沉积—早成岩期的胶结作用对碳酸盐沉积物搬运过程产生的影响是不可忽略的。因此,在对深时记录中的碳酸盐沉积物搬运过程进行模拟时,需要考虑该时期的海水地球化学条件对胶结作用的影响,直接套用现代海水化学条件下的沉积物搬运模式可能造成模拟结果的偏差。此外,由于碳酸盐岩沉积过程与碎屑岩沉积过程在早期成岩阶段存在较大的差异性,需要进一步探索和建立更适用于碳酸盐沉积物的搬运过程模型。
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随着分析测试技术、沉积过程数值模拟等研究手段的不断发展,定量化精细刻画碳酸盐工厂构成及其生产过程成为一个值得期待的新兴方向。通过高分辨率地识别岩石学、地球化学特征,并结合沉积过程数值模拟等方法,可以分析大规模碳酸盐发育的气候条件、古地理格局、物质来源、氧化还原条件、水动力条件和营养水平等。这些工作的开展将有利于更深入地认识碳酸盐沉积过程,阐明其动力学来源和具体生产机制,对于理解地球表层生物圈与环境的相互关系也具有重要意义。但在未来的研究中,仍需要重点关注和解决以下问题。
(1) 在进行碳酸盐颗粒的定量统计分析时,不仅要针对颗粒组合的变化进行分析,也需要进一步挖掘通过颗粒形态的统计分析所揭露的环境信息,同时要进一步完善适用于碳酸盐颗粒的定量形态分析方法和模型。此外,在定量统计时也需要考虑成岩过程对于沉积物和沉积构造等特征的改造,以避免在数据解读时产生偏差。
(2) 在利用地球化学指标定量评估碳酸盐工厂发育的古海洋环境时,需要慎重考虑碳酸盐岩所记录的地球化学信号的有效性,未来应进一步建立基于Ca-Mg同位素,结合数值模拟方法的技术体系,以定量评估成岩作用的改造程度。同时,在开发和应用新的碳酸盐岩元素或同位素地球化学代用指标时,需深入理解元素的赋存机理和同位素的分馏机制,以便更准确地恢复古气候、环境的演变。在地球化学分析技术方面,由于碳酸盐岩的非均质性极强,应进一步加强原位元素及同位素测试方法的开发和应用,进而达到精细刻画碳酸盐工厂发育的古海洋环境的目的。
(3) 利用碳酸盐岩沉积过程正演模拟研究深时记录中的碳酸盐工厂演化,现阶段仍有许多问题需要解决。首先,在针对深时碳酸盐岩沉积过程进行的正演模拟中,参数的设置(例如产率、古水深等)多基于现代实例,其适用性需要进一步验证;其次,在基于碳酸盐工厂基本原理的地层沉积正演模拟中,需要进一步关注海水化学条件及沉积—早期成岩作用对碳酸盐生产及沉积过程的影响。
实例参数等 Al-Salmi et al.[98] Li et al.[99] van der Looven et al.[100] Tella et al.[97] Liu et al.[101] Barrett et al.[102] Burgess et al.[103] 段太忠等[95] 刘建良等[104] 黄渊等[105] 初始地形 地震剖面;根据岩相特征恢复古水深,得到初始地形 根据岩相恢复古水深,得到初始地形 地震剖面; 钻井资料 根据底栖生物恢复古水深,得到初始地形 地震剖面;根据沉积相恢复古水深,得到初始地形 测井资料, 地震剖面 — 地震剖面;连井资料;根据岩相恢复古水深,得到初始地形 初始地形设置为碳酸盐岩台地、斜坡和盆地三个理想相带 地震剖面;根据沉积相恢复古水深,得到初始地形 海平面升降 基于Haq[106]和 Miller et al.[107]的 海平面变化曲线 修改 基于Haq et al.[108]的海平面变化曲线修改 基于Miller et al.[107]的海平面变化曲线修改 基于Haq[106]和Miller et al.[107,109]的海平面变化曲线修改 基于Haq et al.[110]海平面变化曲线 修改 利用休恩半岛的生物礁序列和波拿巴湾的沉积物估算相对海平面变化 使用修正的正弦振荡函数来代替海平面震荡 根据沉积旋回推测海平面变化,结合Haq et al.[108]的海平面变化曲线修改 三级海平面变化曲线叠加+四级、五级海平面曲线 结合地震剖面和岩相的解释;Fischer 图解 构造沉降 研究区域的沉降率和海平面升降保持平衡,沉降率被指定为恒定速率 2 m Myr-1 实测台地内部和边缘剖面,计算出不同时期沉降速率(印度阶330 m Myr-1;奥伦尼克阶142.5 m Myr-1;安尼阶32.3 m Myr-1;拉丁阶240 m Myr-1) 基于马尔代夫地区的回剥沉降曲线,估算沉降率为 38.5 m Myr-1 — 基于回剥厚度与 沉积时间估算 沉降速率 — 沉降率的变化发生在百万年的时间尺度上,因此在较短的模拟时长内以恒定的沉降速率进行建模(100 m Myr-1) 根据沉积厚度和古水深估算构造沉降速率 沉降率的变化发生在百万年的时间尺度上,所以构造沉降设定为恒定速率 100 m Myr-1. 基于文献总结分析得出塔里木盆地的构造沉降史,得出沉降速率范围(0.00 327~ 0.00 374 m Myr-1) 碳酸盐产率模型 按大小分组碳酸盐颗粒;用T工厂的生产曲线[111]测试各深度最大产率;绘制不同的碳酸盐颗粒的产率—深度曲线 确定不同岩相类型;根据测量的岩相厚度除以沉积时间估算最大产率;绘制产率—深度 曲线 根据Pomar[4]的方案划分碳酸盐工厂类型;计算透光生物群生存的水深[112],估算各深度最大产率[113],得出产率—深度曲线 划分不同深度的生物组合;依据不同水深存在的生物群估算生产速率来绘制产率—深度曲线 将沉积体系简化为碳酸盐生产深度区间;基于不同水深存在的碳酸盐工厂估算各区间产率;绘制碳酸盐产率深度曲线 印度洋—太平洋礁前相碳酸盐产率曲线[114]测定台地边缘碳酸盐沉积速率;假设台地内部只存在细粒碳酸盐岩的沉积 据Pomar[4]方案划分三种不同光带的碳酸盐工厂;确立每种工厂的产率和深度[112];绘制产率—深度曲线 碳酸盐原位生产模型:P=θPw+(1-θ)Pk(θ:势能与动能的比例参数;Pw:势能,与地层因素有关;Pk:动能,与生物因素有关) 碳酸盐生产与水深负相关;划分四类碳酸盐岩;依据古今统计结果设定生产速率与水深的模糊逻辑函数集 产率与水深呈近似指数关系,与水体能量呈线性关系;碳酸盐原位生产模型:P=θPw+(1-θ)Pk[95] 最大产率 碳酸盐大颗粒:290 m/Myr;碳酸盐中颗粒:190 m/Myr;碳酸盐泥:15~120 m/Myr 产率介于 200~650 m/Myr 产率介于 100~1 000 m/Myr 透光带:15 m/Myr;中光带:10 m/Myr;寡光带:15 m/Myr;远洋沉积:7 m/Myr 类型1:600 m/Myr;类型2:300 m/Myr;类型3:50 m/Myr;类型4:20 m/Myr 台地边缘碳酸盐沉积速率:14 000 m/Myr;台地内部碳酸盐沉积速率:700 m/Myr 透光带:250~5 000 m/Myr;寡光带:150~3 000 m/Myr;无光带:52~66 m/Myr — 类型1:1 000 m/My;类型2:500 m/My类型3:100 m/My;类型4:50 m/My —
Detailed Characterization of Carbonate Factories from the Perspective of Quantitative Reconstruction
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摘要: 意义 碳酸盐工厂为碳酸盐岩沉积体系提供了物质基础,与海洋演化、元素循环、表生地质过程等密切相关,是反映地球系统演化的重要环节。因此,定量化表征碳酸盐工厂及其主控因素是深入理解碳酸盐岩所记录的地质信息的关键。【 进展 】总结了半定量—定量表征碳酸盐工厂的研究方法进展,结合对沉积过程正演模拟方法的介绍,从定量重建的角度为精细刻画碳酸盐工厂提供了思路。【 展望 】针对碳酸盐工厂的研究,应在传统碳酸盐岩沉积学的基础上加深对其主控因素的定量评估,特别是直接影响生态的因素。但在套用基于碎屑岩沉积体系所建立的定量分析方法时,需要考虑碳酸盐岩与碎屑岩的差异,并进一步完善适用于碳酸盐岩的模型和分析方法。此外,在应用地球化学指标反演碳酸盐工厂及其主控因素时,要加强对成岩作用改造程度的定量评估,以降低成岩作用对地球化学信号的影响。而在开发和应用新的碳酸盐岩地球化学代用指标时,需明确其赋存或分馏机理,从而更准确地解读其所反映的古气候和古环境信息。同时,在利用沉积过程正演模拟研究工厂的演化和生产机制时,需评估从现代环境中获取的参数在深时地质记录中的适用性,并在建模过程中考虑早期成岩作用及海水化学演化的影响。Abstract: Significance Carbonate factories provide the foundation for forming carbonate depositional systems. They are closely related to marine evolution, elemental cycling, and earth surface processes and are an essential part reflecting the evolution of the Earth system. The transition of carbonate factories often coincides with biological and environmental changes. Over geological time, the change of carbonate factories frequently occurs along with biological or environmental crises such as mass extinction or the initiation of new life forms such as life explosion or biological recovery after crisis. Therefore, quantifying the characterization of carbonate factories and their controlling factors is for a deeper understanding of the geological information recorded in carbonate rocks. [ Progress ] However, most studies on carbonate factories, particularly those from the geological records, are qualitative based on the lithological and microfacies analysis. This study summarizes the research progress in the semi-quantitative to quantitative characterization of carbonate factories, combining the introduction of the methods for forward modelling of sedimentary processes to provide a perspective for the detailed characterization of carbonate factories from a quantitative reconstruction perspective. In addition to providing information on rock components that indicate the ingredients of carbonate factories, statistical analysis of carbonate grains can offer insights into the sedimentary environment by examining parameters such as size, roundness, and sorting. These shape characteristics can serve as quantitative indicators of water energy and grain transportation processes. Elemental geochemical proxies enable the assessment of environmental parameters such as redox conditions, nutrient levels, and climatic conditions. Isotopic geochemical proxies play a crucial role in reconstructing the evolution of environmental factors such as temperature and seawater carbonate saturation. By a combination of multiproxies and sedimentary process modelling, a comprehensive analysis can identify the production process, controlling factors, and evolution of carbonate factories. [ Prospects ] Based on traditional carbonate sedimentology, studying carbonate factories should deepen our understanding of their controlling factors, particularly the quantitative assessment of factors directly impacting ecosystems. When applying quantitative analysis methods such as sediment transport patterns or hydrodynamic analysis that are established in siliciclastic sedimentary systems, the differences caused by the biogenic nature of certain carbonate sediments compared to siliciclastic sediments need to be considered. Furthermore, models and analysis methods applicable to carbonate grains should be further refined. In addition, when quantitatively evaluating the development of carbonate factories in ancient marine using quantitative carbonate grains statistics or geochemical indicators, there should be a strengthened focus on developing quantitative assessment methods for the level of diagenetic alteration. Further efforts should be directed toward developing and applying in-situ elemental and isotopic testing methods to reduce the impact of diagenesis on geochemical signals. While developing and applying new geochemical proxies for carbonate rocks, the mechanisms of occurrence or fractionation need to be clearly understood to interpret the reflected paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental information accurately. Simultaneously, when studying deep-time evolution and production mechanisms of carbonate factories through sedimentary process forward modelling, it is necessary to consider the applicability of parameters obtained from modern environments in deep-time records and account for the impact of syndepositional-early diagenesis and chemical evolution of seawater geochemical evolution in the modelling process.
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图 3 基于元素地球化学指标的寒武纪早期典型浅水碳酸盐工厂发育气候、环境和营养因素的定量恢复实例(据文献[72]修改)
Figure 3. Quantitative reconstruction of climatic, environmental, and nutrient factors for the development of a tropical shallow⁃water carbonate factory in the Early Cambrian based on element geochemical indicators (modified from reference [72])
表 1 碳酸盐岩沉积过程模拟实例
Table 1. Study cases for carbonate sedimentary process modelling
实例参数等 Al-Salmi et al.[98] Li et al.[99] van der Looven et al.[100] Tella et al.[97] Liu et al.[101] Barrett et al.[102] Burgess et al.[103] 段太忠等[95] 刘建良等[104] 黄渊等[105] 陆源碎屑 — — — — 基于钻井资料确定陆源碎屑输入的位置 — — — — — 温度 — — — — 利用氧同位素重建古海洋温度:T=16.9-4.2(δC-δW) +0.13(δC-δW)2[115] — — — — — 盐度 — — — — 利用碳氧同位素推算古盐度:Z=2.048(δ13C+50) +0.498(δ18O+50) — — — — — 沉积物搬运 简化的扩散方程:Q=Kwave×Ewave×S(Q:沉积物通量; Kwave:波浪扩散系数;Ewave:波浪能;S:坡度) 沉积物的搬运与地形坡度和扩散系数有关 简化的扩散方程:Q=Kgravity×S+Kwave×Ewave×S(Q:沉积物通量; Kgravity:重力扩散系数;Kwave:波浪扩散系数;Ewave:波浪能;S:坡度) 简化的扩散方程:Q=Kwave×S(Q:沉积物通量;Kwave:波浪扩散系数; S:坡度) — 利用剪切力和地形坡度模拟搬运过程:τtotal=τcurrent+τwave+τslope[116] — 基于扩散模型和水动力学方程 — 基于扩散模型和水动力学方程 时代 侏罗纪— 早白垩纪 早三叠世— 中三叠世 渐新世—中新世 中新世 晚埃迪卡拉世— 早寒武世 全新世 — 晚白垩纪 — 寒武纪 研究区 阿曼北部下白垩统碳酸盐岩台地 大贵州滩 马尔代夫群岛 Menorca岛碳酸盐缓坡 四川盆地中部德阳—安岳海槽 大堡礁 — 大巴哈马滩 — 塔河地区 沉积建造类型 镶边台地 孤立台地 孤立台地 缓坡 斜坡 孤立台地 分析海平面升降及碳酸盐产率对浅水不同岩相厚度的影响 孤立台地 台地—斜坡相(分析碳酸盐地层的完整性) 碳酸盐地层演化 软件 DionisosFlow DionisosFlow DionisosFlow DionisosFlow Sedsim CARBONATE 3D Dougal CARBSIM Sedsim iRDS-CarbSIMS 续表 实例参数等 Al-Salmi et al.[98] Li et al.[99] van der Looven et al.[100] Tella et al.[97] Liu et al.[101] Barrett et al.[102] Burgess et al.[103] 段太忠等[95] 刘建良等[104] 黄渊等[105] 初始地形 地震剖面;根据岩相特征恢复古水深,得到初始地形 根据岩相恢复古水深,得到初始地形 地震剖面; 钻井资料 根据底栖生物恢复古水深,得到初始地形 地震剖面;根据沉积相恢复古水深,得到初始地形 测井资料, 地震剖面 — 地震剖面;连井资料;根据岩相恢复古水深,得到初始地形 初始地形设置为碳酸盐岩台地、斜坡和盆地三个理想相带 地震剖面;根据沉积相恢复古水深,得到初始地形 海平面升降 基于Haq[106]和 Miller et al.[107]的 海平面变化曲线 修改 基于Haq et al.[108]的海平面变化曲线修改 基于Miller et al.[107]的海平面变化曲线修改 基于Haq[106]和Miller et al.[107,109]的海平面变化曲线修改 基于Haq et al.[110]海平面变化曲线 修改 利用休恩半岛的生物礁序列和波拿巴湾的沉积物估算相对海平面变化 使用修正的正弦振荡函数来代替海平面震荡 根据沉积旋回推测海平面变化,结合Haq et al.[108]的海平面变化曲线修改 三级海平面变化曲线叠加+四级、五级海平面曲线 结合地震剖面和岩相的解释;Fischer 图解 构造沉降 研究区域的沉降率和海平面升降保持平衡,沉降率被指定为恒定速率 2 m Myr-1 实测台地内部和边缘剖面,计算出不同时期沉降速率(印度阶330 m Myr-1;奥伦尼克阶142.5 m Myr-1;安尼阶32.3 m Myr-1;拉丁阶240 m Myr-1) 基于马尔代夫地区的回剥沉降曲线,估算沉降率为 38.5 m Myr-1 — 基于回剥厚度与 沉积时间估算 沉降速率 — 沉降率的变化发生在百万年的时间尺度上,因此在较短的模拟时长内以恒定的沉降速率进行建模(100 m Myr-1) 根据沉积厚度和古水深估算构造沉降速率 沉降率的变化发生在百万年的时间尺度上,所以构造沉降设定为恒定速率 100 m Myr-1. 基于文献总结分析得出塔里木盆地的构造沉降史,得出沉降速率范围(0.00 327~ 0.00 374 m Myr-1) 碳酸盐产率模型 按大小分组碳酸盐颗粒;用T工厂的生产曲线[111]测试各深度最大产率;绘制不同的碳酸盐颗粒的产率—深度曲线 确定不同岩相类型;根据测量的岩相厚度除以沉积时间估算最大产率;绘制产率—深度 曲线 根据Pomar[4]的方案划分碳酸盐工厂类型;计算透光生物群生存的水深[112],估算各深度最大产率[113],得出产率—深度曲线 划分不同深度的生物组合;依据不同水深存在的生物群估算生产速率来绘制产率—深度曲线 将沉积体系简化为碳酸盐生产深度区间;基于不同水深存在的碳酸盐工厂估算各区间产率;绘制碳酸盐产率深度曲线 印度洋—太平洋礁前相碳酸盐产率曲线[114]测定台地边缘碳酸盐沉积速率;假设台地内部只存在细粒碳酸盐岩的沉积 据Pomar[4]方案划分三种不同光带的碳酸盐工厂;确立每种工厂的产率和深度[112];绘制产率—深度曲线 碳酸盐原位生产模型:P=θPw+(1-θ)Pk(θ:势能与动能的比例参数;Pw:势能,与地层因素有关;Pk:动能,与生物因素有关) 碳酸盐生产与水深负相关;划分四类碳酸盐岩;依据古今统计结果设定生产速率与水深的模糊逻辑函数集 产率与水深呈近似指数关系,与水体能量呈线性关系;碳酸盐原位生产模型:P=θPw+(1-θ)Pk[95] 最大产率 碳酸盐大颗粒:290 m/Myr;碳酸盐中颗粒:190 m/Myr;碳酸盐泥:15~120 m/Myr 产率介于 200~650 m/Myr 产率介于 100~1 000 m/Myr 透光带:15 m/Myr;中光带:10 m/Myr;寡光带:15 m/Myr;远洋沉积:7 m/Myr 类型1:600 m/Myr;类型2:300 m/Myr;类型3:50 m/Myr;类型4:20 m/Myr 台地边缘碳酸盐沉积速率:14 000 m/Myr;台地内部碳酸盐沉积速率:700 m/Myr 透光带:250~5 000 m/Myr;寡光带:150~3 000 m/Myr;无光带:52~66 m/Myr — 类型1:1 000 m/My;类型2:500 m/My类型3:100 m/My;类型4:50 m/My — -
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