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LIAO HuiHong, SU ZhongTang, MA Hui, SUN PeiJie. Paleoenvironmental Factors of Late Ordovician Carbonate Platform Extinction in Northeastern Yunnan Province[J]. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 2024, 42(2): 434-444. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2023.094
Citation: LIAO HuiHong, SU ZhongTang, MA Hui, SUN PeiJie. Paleoenvironmental Factors of Late Ordovician Carbonate Platform Extinction in Northeastern Yunnan Province[J]. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 2024, 42(2): 434-444. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2023.094

Paleoenvironmental Factors of Late Ordovician Carbonate Platform Extinction in Northeastern Yunnan Province

doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2023.094
Funds:

National Natural Science Foundation of China 41972104

  • Received Date: 2023-07-06
  • Accepted Date: 2023-10-20
  • Rev Recd Date: 2023-09-12
  • Available Online: 2023-10-20
  • Publish Date: 2024-02-04
  • Objective The shrinkage and demise of the Late Ordovician carbonate platform in northeastern Yunnan have been subject to various interpretations. To delve deeper into its origins, this paper intends to investigate the Late Ordovician paleoenvironmental evolution in northeastern Yunnan and analyze the influence of paleoenvironmental factors on the demise of the Late Ordovician carbonate platform in this region. Methods The Wanhe section in the northeast of Yunnan province was selected as the research object. Using methods such as indoor mineralogy, petrology, and sedimentary geochemistry analysis, a systematic study was conducted on the microfacies characteristics of the Ordovician Linxiang-Silurian Longmaxi Formations in northeastern Yunnan province. During this period, an analysis of paleoenvironmental changes was conducted to explore the paleoenvironmental impacts during the contraction and extinction of carbonate platforms in the Late Ordovician in northeastern Yunnan province. Results Through the analysis of lithological characteristics, microscopic mineral composition, and paleontological features within the Linxiang-Longmaxi Formations at the Wanhe section, six sedimentary microfacies were identified: nodular limestone, laminated microcrystalline limestone, microcrystalline fossiliferous limestone, laminated calcareous mudstone, sandy mudstone and silty sandstone, and calcareous shale and calcareous carbonaceous mudstone. These were further divided into three sedimentary subfacies: shallow carbonate ramp, deep carbonate ramp, and restricted retention shelf. By utilizing sedimentary geochemical methods, we analyzed the paleoceanographic geochemical characteristics and established a geochemical profile. This analysis revealed frequent and significant changes in the paleoceanographic indicators, including paleoproductivity, paleoredox conditions, terrestrial detrital input, and paleosea level fluctuations, between the Ordovician Daduhe and Silurian Longmaxi Formations. Conclusions Through the analysis of paleoceanographic changes around the Late Ordovician carbonate platform in northeastern Yunnan province, the extinction of the Late Ordovician carbonate platform in this region can be attributed to oceanic hypoxia. This hypoxia led to the decline of photosynthetic organisms and subsequently inhibited carbonate production, resulting in the contraction and eventual extinction of the carbonate platform. Additionally, sea-level changes, climate fluctuations, increased input of terrigenous debris, and the Late Ordovician mass extinction event played crucial roles in the process of the carbonate platform disappearance.
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  • Received:  2023-07-06
  • Revised:  2023-09-12
  • Accepted:  2023-10-20
  • Published:  2024-02-04

Paleoenvironmental Factors of Late Ordovician Carbonate Platform Extinction in Northeastern Yunnan Province

doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2023.094
Funds:

National Natural Science Foundation of China 41972104

Abstract: Objective The shrinkage and demise of the Late Ordovician carbonate platform in northeastern Yunnan have been subject to various interpretations. To delve deeper into its origins, this paper intends to investigate the Late Ordovician paleoenvironmental evolution in northeastern Yunnan and analyze the influence of paleoenvironmental factors on the demise of the Late Ordovician carbonate platform in this region. Methods The Wanhe section in the northeast of Yunnan province was selected as the research object. Using methods such as indoor mineralogy, petrology, and sedimentary geochemistry analysis, a systematic study was conducted on the microfacies characteristics of the Ordovician Linxiang-Silurian Longmaxi Formations in northeastern Yunnan province. During this period, an analysis of paleoenvironmental changes was conducted to explore the paleoenvironmental impacts during the contraction and extinction of carbonate platforms in the Late Ordovician in northeastern Yunnan province. Results Through the analysis of lithological characteristics, microscopic mineral composition, and paleontological features within the Linxiang-Longmaxi Formations at the Wanhe section, six sedimentary microfacies were identified: nodular limestone, laminated microcrystalline limestone, microcrystalline fossiliferous limestone, laminated calcareous mudstone, sandy mudstone and silty sandstone, and calcareous shale and calcareous carbonaceous mudstone. These were further divided into three sedimentary subfacies: shallow carbonate ramp, deep carbonate ramp, and restricted retention shelf. By utilizing sedimentary geochemical methods, we analyzed the paleoceanographic geochemical characteristics and established a geochemical profile. This analysis revealed frequent and significant changes in the paleoceanographic indicators, including paleoproductivity, paleoredox conditions, terrestrial detrital input, and paleosea level fluctuations, between the Ordovician Daduhe and Silurian Longmaxi Formations. Conclusions Through the analysis of paleoceanographic changes around the Late Ordovician carbonate platform in northeastern Yunnan province, the extinction of the Late Ordovician carbonate platform in this region can be attributed to oceanic hypoxia. This hypoxia led to the decline of photosynthetic organisms and subsequently inhibited carbonate production, resulting in the contraction and eventual extinction of the carbonate platform. Additionally, sea-level changes, climate fluctuations, increased input of terrigenous debris, and the Late Ordovician mass extinction event played crucial roles in the process of the carbonate platform disappearance.

LIAO HuiHong, SU ZhongTang, MA Hui, SUN PeiJie. Paleoenvironmental Factors of Late Ordovician Carbonate Platform Extinction in Northeastern Yunnan Province[J]. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 2024, 42(2): 434-444. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2023.094
Citation: LIAO HuiHong, SU ZhongTang, MA Hui, SUN PeiJie. Paleoenvironmental Factors of Late Ordovician Carbonate Platform Extinction in Northeastern Yunnan Province[J]. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 2024, 42(2): 434-444. doi: 10.14027/j.issn.1000-0550.2023.094
  • 碳酸盐岩台地是指碳酸盐岩形成和沉积的主要场所,其演化进程受控于大地构造背景、相对海平面变化、气候/环境条件、生态条件以及碳酸盐沉积作用等[15]。Schlager[6]将碳酸盐岩台地的消亡定义为“海平面相对上升超过碳酸盐堆积速率,使得台地/生物礁淹没在富产碳酸盐的透光带之下的过程”。现代研究表明,大部分碳酸盐沉积物与生物作用相关,这也注定了该类沉积岩与海洋生物,海洋环境具有密切关系,因此深入理解碳酸盐岩与海洋生物—环境之间的关联,有助于我们了解碳酸盐岩台地演化进程[4]

    奥陶纪地层广泛的出露于扬子地块,自奥陶纪早期开始,扬子地区被广阔的陆表海所覆盖,并形成了大范围的碳酸盐岩地层,富含许多生物化石[78]。在中奥陶世之前,中上扬子区的古地理格局一直保持稳定[9]。然而,在晚奥陶世期间,这个古地理格局开始发生重要的转变。在此期间,受陆地扩增和奥陶纪末短暂海退的双重影响,晚奥陶世的扬子板块突现出比早、中奥陶世更显著的岩相和生物相分异,总体表现为碳酸盐岩的生产量和分布范围明显缩减[10],到了凯迪晚期该区域碳酸盐岩沉积主要发育在古陆附近[11]。对于扬子地区晚奥陶世碳酸盐岩台地萎缩消亡的成因认识有构造、海平面等因素影响[1213],但缺乏对古环境变化对其影响的探讨。

    滇东北地区昭通市永善县的万和剖面,完整记录着奥陶系临湘组—志留系龙马溪组的连续沉积,从底到顶岩性由碳酸盐岩逐渐转变为泥页岩。因此,通过反演滇东地区晚奥陶世古环境转变,以此来探讨古环境因素对滇东北地区晚奥陶世碳酸盐岩台地消亡的影响。

  • 在奥陶纪末,华南板块与南极冈瓦纳大陆分离,但仍然依附于冈瓦纳大陆周缘的亚热带至热带地区,位于30° S~30° N[1417]图1)。晚奥陶世时期,中上扬子地区发生了古地理格局的重要转变。伴随着加里东构造运动的发生,扬子地块与华夏地块挤压碰撞加剧,华夏古陆向西北方向扩张,形成了中上扬子地区的黔中边缘隆起(即滇黔古陆)和湘鄂隆起[18]。此时,扬子主体沉积区从克拉通台地—大陆边缘转变为前陆盆地演化阶段,并被川中隆起、康黔古陆和滇黔古陆所包围[19]。同时,扬子区的西面与松潘—甘孜洋相连[20],形成了一个半局限浅海盆地。

    Figure 1.  Global paleogeographic map of the Ordovician⁃Silurian transition period (~440 Ma)[15]

    剖面位于云南省永善县莲峰镇和平村,奥陶纪—志留纪过渡地层沿着新修的乡村公路出露,唐鹏等[21]对于该剖面上生物类群开展了细致的研究,并以此划分出生物地层。本文的地层划分便是依据于此,自下而上分别为临湘组瘤状灰岩、大渡河组微晶灰岩与钙质泥岩、观音桥层砂质泥岩与生屑灰岩、龙马溪组泥页岩,剖面总厚度为44.6 m。实测剖面位于和平村立直社牛滚凼,地质图上属万和场行政管辖区域,GPS坐标为27°45'18.85" N,103°28'35.50" E,海拔1 414 m左右(图2)。

    Figure 2.  Location (a) and geological map (b) of the Daduhe Formation at Wanhe village in Yongshan county, Yunnan province[21]

  • 滇东北地区奥陶系临湘组—志留系龙马溪组地层连续发育。主要为碳酸盐岩与泥页岩混合沉积,有丰富的腕足类及笔石化石。剖面位于新修的公路旁,出露较好,岩石表面新鲜,风化程度较低。在万和剖面共采集了52件灰岩与泥岩样品,采样密度在0.1~2 m。选取未风化、岩性均匀的新鲜岩石进行采样,避开有裂隙、方解石脉体充填的部分,并对样品进行详细的野外描述以及记录。

    样品主要用于薄片观察和地球化学分析。每个样品分成两组分,分别用于制成普通薄片以及地球化学分析测试;对用于地球化学测试分析的样品需要用玛瑙研钵磨制成200目以下的粉末,根据需求分成五等份,一份备用,其他四份分别用于主微量元素,C、O同位素和Sr同位素测试。

    薄片镜下观察鉴定在成都理工大学油气藏地质及开发工程国家重点实验室完成,在观察之前,对薄片均用茜素红半边染色,在Nikon E600 Pol+偏光显微镜下观察。全岩主量元素、微量元素及Sr同位素均在武汉上谱分析测试实验室完成。全岩主量元素含量分析使用的分析仪器为日本理学(Rigaku)生产的ZSX Primus Ⅱ型波长色散X射线荧光光谱仪(XRF),测试的相对标准偏差(RSD)小于2%。全岩微量元素使用的是Agilent 7700e ICP-MS电感耦合等离子体质谱仪。全岩Sr同位素分析利用德国Thermo Fisher Scientific公司的MC-ICP-MS(Neptune Plus)进行分析测试。碳氧同位素测试完成于成都理工大学地质学国家级示范中心,所使用的测试仪器为Thermo Fisher Scientific MAT253同位素质谱仪,测试误差(质量分数)为±0.02‰。

  • 碳酸盐岩沉积对环境变化异常敏感,环境变化引起沉积物差异,这种差异体现在碳酸盐岩微相上[22]。对万和剖面不同层位岩石学特征、镜下矿物组成以及古生物特征等进行分析,对比Flügel修订的标准微相,将临湘组—龙马溪组划分为以下六类微相类型,分别为MF1~MF6,并分析其形成环境。

    1) MF1 含泥瘤状灰岩

    含泥瘤状灰岩为临湘组顶部沉积的主要岩性,呈灰色—浅灰色,瘤状结构,多为厚层状或块状构造,岩层表面凹凸不平。瘤状灰岩中的瘤体成分主要为灰岩,泥质含量较少。全岩的方解石含量为80%~90%,陆源碎屑中的黏土矿物和泥级的颗粒含量为10%~20%(图3a)。该层化石种类主要产牙形类和几丁类。

    Figure 3.  Microscopic photographs of rock samples from the Wanhe section

    解释:瘤状构造,主要为微晶方解石组分,泥质少,生物碎屑以及陆源碎屑含量都较低。同时也无生物扰动痕迹。这些证据均指示低能开阔海环境,推测沉积环境为深缓坡。

    2) MF2 纹层状微晶灰岩

    微晶灰岩主要产出于大渡河组中下段,岩石呈灰色—深灰色,层状产出,层厚多为薄层至中厚层状。矿物成分主要为微晶方解石,含量大于80%,泥质含量约15%,还有少量的有机质,约5%。岩石内见少量的生物碎屑,含量为10%~15%,微晶方解石含量在80%左右(图3b)。

    解释:中厚层状,微晶方解石组分,且可见少量的生物碎屑,如有腕足类,唐鹏等[21]对于该腕足组合进行分析,认为其由Kassinella sp.,Trimurellina sp., Leptellina sp.,Paromalomena sp.,Dedzetina sp.,Brevilamnulella?sp.,Aegiromenella sp.,strophomenid,rhynchonellid,acrotretid,lingulid组成。此组合被认为可归属于BA5,属于贫氧海域中较深水腕足动物群[21],表明其形成环境多为水动力相对较弱、水体安静的环境,类似于Flügel微相的RMF8。分析认为沉积环境为深缓坡。

    3) MF3 微晶生屑灰岩

    微晶生屑灰岩主要产出在大渡河组的顶部以及观音桥层,岩石颜色呈灰色、深灰色,中薄层状。方解石含量约为85%,此外还有部分泥质和有机质,约占7%,还有部分颗粒矿物,约占8%。颗粒类型主要为生物碎屑,含量约为55%。生物类型复杂,主要为腕足、介形虫、海百合等(图3c)。

    解释:岩石颗粒主要为破碎、磨圆中等以及保存较差的生物碎屑,指示着水动力较强。生物碎屑种类以腕足、笔石、介形虫和海百合为主,其中笔石主要属于M.extraordinarius带,腕足则是赫南特阶特有的赫南特贝,这些都为指示近岸、浅水、中等分异度的典型Hirnantia动物群[21],推测沉积环境可能为浅缓坡亚相中的生屑滩。

    4) MF4 钙质泥岩

    该类岩石类型多出现在大渡河组上段,岩石颜色多呈褐灰色,呈薄层状产出。钙质含量较高可达40%,陆源碎屑含量偏低(约15%)。镜下观察发现泥级沉积物含量丰富,可见一些生物碎屑;层理清晰,可见条带状有机质纹层(图3d)。常与泥灰岩互层出现。

    解释:本微相常与泥灰岩互层出现,且有机质含量中等,基本上观察不到生物扰动的证据,说明此时沉积于较为缺氧、深水及低能的环境中,该微相的沉积环境与MF2相似,为深缓坡。

    5) MF5 砂质泥岩和泥质砂岩

    该类型出现在观音桥层,岩石呈土黄色—黄灰色,生物碎屑丰富,主要有腕足类和笔石,但化石的保存状态较差,化石种类跟MF3相同。生屑含量为60%~70%,亮晶方解石胶结约15%(图3e)。

    解释:该微相的化石种类与MF3相同,均属于赫南特动物群,属于BA3组合,指示近岸、浅水的沉积环境,推测该微相的沉积环境为浅缓坡亚相中的生屑滩。

    6) MF6 含钙质泥页岩和含钙质碳质泥岩

    该类岩石类型主要分布在龙马溪组,岩石颜色多呈灰色—褐灰色,纹层状,多发育水平层理,有机质含量高,层厚以薄层为主。钙质含量较高(35%~45%),陆源碎屑含量较高(20%~30%)(图3f)。在龙马溪组单独以层状出现,可见方解石充填的裂隙或脉体,且含有丰富的笔石化石。

    解释:纹层状,多发育水平层理,有机质偏高且富含笔石化石。表明该类岩石主要出现在水动力条件较弱、缺氧的环境之中,再结合前文所述区域构造背景,被古隆起包围,推测此微相的沉积环境可能是浅海陆棚相中的局限滞留陆棚。

    结合万和剖面的岩石学和古生物学的研究,将不同类型的微相按照其颜色、颗粒基质、组构特征进行对比(表1),在此基础上对于研究区上晚奥陶世至早志留世的沉积环境进行了分析,划分出三个沉积亚相:深缓坡、浅缓坡以及局限滞留陆棚。浅缓坡处于海平面之下、正常浪基面之上,岩性主要是微晶生屑灰岩和砂质泥岩和泥质砂岩,生物类群以赫南特动物群落为主,指示一种近岸、浅水高能的沉积环境,主要的微相类型有MF3和MF5,此类微相组合可归为生屑滩;深缓坡位于正常浪基面和风暴浪基面之间,位于一个深水、低能的沉积环境中,岩性以微晶瘤状灰岩、微晶灰岩和钙质泥岩为主,主要的微相类型为MF1、MF2和MF4;局限滞留陆棚处于一种缺氧、深水、低能且局限的沉积环境,岩性以富有机质的泥页岩为主,主要的微相类型为MF6。

    微相名称主要所在层位颜色颗粒基质与胶结物层理纹层主要微相特征野外组构解释
    碳酸盐颗粒陆源碎屑
    含泥瘤状灰岩(MF1)临湘组灰色、浅灰色泥粒泥晶支撑泥晶支撑;瘤状构造瘤状构造;块状深缓坡
    纹层状微晶灰岩(MF2)大渡河组灰色、深灰色少量生物碎屑泥晶支撑水平层理泥晶支撑;水平层理,BA5深水生物组合纹层状深缓坡
    微晶生屑灰岩(MF3)观音桥层灰色、深灰色生物碎屑中等泥晶支撑BA3浅水生物组合;生屑破碎纹层状浅缓坡生屑滩
    纹层状钙质泥岩(MF4)大渡河组褐灰色中等富有机质泥;钙质水平层理与泥灰岩互层;条带状黑色富有机质纹层纹层状深缓坡
    砂质泥岩和泥质砂岩(MF5)观音桥层土黄色、黄灰色中等硅质或钙质粉砂BA3浅水生物组合块状浅缓坡生屑滩
    含钙质泥页岩和含钙质碳质泥岩(MF6)龙马溪组灰色、褐灰色富有机质泥;钙质水平层理条带状黑色富有机质纹层;丰富的笔石化石纹层状局限滞留陆棚

    Table 1.  Microfacies characteristics of the Wanhe section

  • Mn/Sr比值常被用于判断碳酸盐岩受到的成岩蚀变程度,当Mn/Sr≤2.0时,碳酸盐岩经受的成岩作用和蚀变程度低,可以被认为是保留了原始海水信息[2325]。而样品WH-02b1、WH-02b2、WH-02b6、WH-03b1、WH-03b2这些样品Mn/Sr>2.0。综上,对上述样品数据进行剔除。

  • 通常情况下痕量元素Ba、P、Cu、Zn对古海洋生产力状况较为敏感[2628]。其中Ba与古生产力具有良好相关性,P是最重要的营养元素,而Cu、Zn元素含量与有机质沉降量相关。研究区属于滇东北地区晚奥陶系,靠近滇黔桂古陆边缘,陆源碎屑输入的影响较大,为了消除陆源碎屑的影响,使用代表陆源碎屑输入的Al元素对这些元素进行矫正。

    万和剖面的海洋初级生产力情况选用Ba/Al、P/Al、Cu/Al、Zn/Al这四个指标表示。万和剖面的Ba/Al、P/Al、Cu/Al、Zn/Al在临湘组沉积末期到大渡河组沉积初期均较为平稳(图4);在大渡河组沉积中期时,Ba/Al、P/Al、Cu/Al、Zn/Al这些指标均出现多次正偏现象,最大值分别可达0.34、0.150 9、0.001 94、0.008 97;之后Ba/Al、P/Al曲线平稳演化一直到龙马溪组早期,而Cu/Al、Zn/Al曲线则在观音桥层沉积期再次出现正偏现象,随后降低趋于平稳。

    Figure 4.  Comprehensive histogram of the Late Ordovician Linxiang Formation and Early Silurian Longmaxi Formation in the Wanhe section, northeast Yunnan province (reference for species number from reference [29])

  • 稀土元素中的Ce通常拿来反映海洋水体的氧化还原环境变化[3031]。其计算公式为:

    Ceanom=lg[3CeSN/(2LaSN+NdSN)] (1)

    式中:SN为北美页岩标准,当Ceanom<-0.1时表现为负异常,判断为氧化环境,当Ceanom>-0.1时则表现为正异常,判断为还原环境[3233]

    除此之外,微量元素中的Mo、U、V、Ni、Co、Th等V体系元素在水中的溶解度明显受水体氧化还原条件控制,被称作氧化还原敏感元素[34]。这些元素在氧化条件下被氧化为高价态离子溶解在海水中,厌氧环境下还原为低价态进入沉积物,单元素指标来指示水体氧化还原环境仍具有一定的局限性。因此,一般用这些元素的比值作为古氧相的替代指标,目前常用于恢复古氧相的指标有V/Cr、V/(V+Ni)[35]

    万和剖面的临湘组—大渡河组样品V/(V+Ni)、V/Cr以及Ceanom值分别为0.46~0.87、1.2~4.52和-0.19~-0.03,波动范围比较大,不少比值超过了厌氧的阈值或者低于富氧的阈值,表明在此期间氧化还原条件的不稳定,间歇性出现富氧或厌氧环境,并在赫南特冰期开始时,即为大渡河组沉积末期,演化曲线指示了厌氧的还原环境。这三个指标的平均值分别为0.66、2.36和-0.11,指示该时期整体处于贫氧环境;观音桥层的V/(V+Ni)和Ceanom值分别为0.59、1.91和-0.11,V/Cr的最小值为1.84,指示富氧氧化条件;进入龙马溪组后,沉积环境快速转变为贫氧—厌氧还原环境,V/Cr和Ceanom值分别为4.68和-0.06,V/(V+Ni)介于0.63~0.81,指示贫氧—厌氧条件。

  • 主量元素Al2O3、K2O、Fe2O3、TiO2可作为陆源组分的代表,碳酸盐岩中Al2O3、K2O、Fe2O3、TiO2值高表明受陆源组分影响大[36]。其中Al2O3和K2O一般被认为与黏土和长石矿物相关;Fe2O3、TiO2被认为代表相对稳定的陆源碎屑物质,受成岩作用影响很小。研究采用Al2O3、K2O、Fe2O3、TiO2来恢复陆源碎屑输入。

    万和剖面中,临湘组—龙马溪组的Al2O3、K2O、Fe2O3和TiO2含量的变化趋势均一致,波动幅度较大(图4)。主要表现为陆源碎屑在大渡河组沉积中初期,输入量快速增加后又立刻降低,于大渡河组沉积中期再次上升后缓慢降低,到观音桥层沉积时(此时为赫南特冰期)再次上升后趋于平稳。总体上看碎屑输入波动较大,这可能与晚奥陶世扬子地区的海平面波动和构造抬升活跃产生的影响有关[18,3738],而陆源碎屑的输入量,也与剖面所处的构造位置密切有关。万和剖面构造位置正是靠近古陆边缘,大渡河组沉积中期陆源碎屑输入量明显增加,说明区域的构造抬升给盆地带来较多的碎屑,并在构造活动相对稳定后,陆源碎屑的输入量也开始趋于平稳。而在观音桥层沉积时陆源碎屑再次增加,并在之后平缓下降并趋于稳定,可能与海平面波动相关。总体来看,研究区在奥陶纪—志留纪之间陆源碎屑输入量波动频繁(图4),可能是受到了古陆隆起和冰期引起的海平面变化的影响。

  • 古海平面变化情况通常采用C同位素曲线来反演,C同位素曲线升降与海平面升降正相关[39],故将样品C同位素值用光滑曲线连接起来,可反映晚奥陶世沉积期古海洋海平面变化情况。

    研究区临湘组—龙马溪组的岩石样品的C同位素含量曲线波动较为明显(为-2.62~2.27),整体上处于正偏,这与Liu et al.[11]所测得C同位素的数值区间及曲线趋势一致。如图4显示在大渡河组沉积初期—中期时,C同位素值相对稳定;在沉积中期C同位素值出现升降波动,出现了两次高低波动,表明大渡河组沉积中期海平面发生过升降变化,这可能与当时的构造抬升作用有关;大渡河组沉积中期—观音桥层沉积期,C同位素值保持相对低幅度的波动,曲线相对稳定,但整体上相对略微正偏,表明海平面处于缓慢上升阶段;然而到了观音桥层沉积初期,C同位素值突然出现低值,曲线迅速负偏,此时恰好进入赫南特冰期,海平面快速下降;到了龙马溪组沉积初期,C同位素曲线开始相对正偏,并趋于稳定,C同位素值并保持在相对高值,此时对应冰期结束,表明海平面又开始上升。C同位素地球化学信息指示在滇东地区晚奥陶世海平面整体处于一个上升状态,但局部时期海平面发生过波动,其中大渡河组沉积中期时海平面发生了多次的上升下降过程,观音桥层沉积期海平面发生突然下降。

  • 在20世纪70年代,沉积学家已经认识到,绝大多数碳酸盐岩的形成和分解直接或间接与生物过程有关[40]。因此,生物组合的变化对碳酸盐岩台地的演化进程至关重要。晚奥陶世期间,滇东北地区生物类群发生明显变化,唐鹏等[21]对万和剖面开展详细的古生物学研究,在大渡河组沉积早中期,主要生物类群为牙形类、几丁类和疑源类,但却未发现腕足类,而到了大渡河组沉积中后期,却只发现了腕足类,而无其他三类生物类群。随后奥陶纪末两幕式生物灭绝随之而来,在这个幕式生物事件之间,李越等[41]在对四川汉源地区大渡河组浅水碳酸盐岩研究发现,在此期间后生动物腕足类、三叶虫和海百合出现了短暂复苏,这可能是观音桥层出现生屑灰岩的基础条件之一。

    基于前人的研究结果以及本文发现,对碳酸盐岩台地消亡与生物事件之间展开讨论。大渡河组沉积期时,越往后期沉积,泥质含量越高,于大渡河组顶部出现一套泥岩沉积;而在观音桥层初期出现一套砂质泥岩沉积,随后转为生屑灰岩沉积;龙马溪组时,转为泥页岩沉积。这些沉积岩性变化恰好与该地区的生物类群的变化相对应(图4),因此推测生物类群的变化与岩性的转变之间存在某种相关性。

  • 海平面变化同样是碳酸盐岩台地演化的重要控制因素[42]。根据C同位素恢复的海平面变化,在大渡河组沉积初期,海平面呈现一个相对平稳的趋势;到了中期突然发生波动,可能受到构造抬升作用的影响[43],而中后期则呈现一个相对缓慢上升的趋势,可能为Boda事件的影响[44],此时岩性也由以灰岩和泥岩不等厚互层为主向以泥岩为主夹薄层灰岩转变。冰期开始,海平面下降,岩性逐渐由钙质泥岩夹微晶灰岩向砂质泥岩转变,在冰期中期再次出现碳酸盐岩沉积(即观音桥层上段),推测与生物复苏有关。进入赫南特阶后期,气候变暖,冰川融化,海平面开始上升,岩性也完全转变为龙马溪组钙质碳质泥页岩。

  • 除生物因素及海平面变化之外,半封闭的海洋导致的海底氧化还原环境变化或大陆增生导致陆源碎屑输入等因素也是导致碳酸盐岩台地消亡的重要因素。

    中上扬子地区在晚奥陶世保存了大量缺氧的沉积记录,特别是以中上扬子地区大范围沉积奥陶系五峰组以及志留系龙马溪组富有机质的黑色页岩为代表[4546]。正如上文所述,研究剖面的氧化还原环境变化如下:富氧—富氧和厌氧反复波动—厌氧—富氧—厌氧和贫氧附近;陆源碎屑输入持续增加,在大渡河前中期输入含量波动较大,在此之后便一直持续增加,直到赫南特冰期开始,陆源碎屑输入量出现了短暂的波动;生产力指标显示除大渡河组沉积中期附近出现频繁波动外,其余时期都表现出较为低值。通过比较万和剖面临湘组—龙马溪组沉积环境演变以及其碳酸盐岩组分演替发现,碳酸盐岩沉积与古氧相和陆源碎屑输入量具有较强的耦合关系(图4),如当处于厌氧或者缺氧环境中时,碳酸盐岩沉积减少甚至停止;而陆源碎屑输入含量也是重要因素,高的陆源碎屑输入量,可能影响着碳酸盐生产,如在龙马溪组时,陆源碎屑输入量保持着高值,此时,碳酸盐岩沉积转变为细粒碎屑岩沉积。

  • 碳酸盐岩台地的消亡是一个复杂的过程,通常由多种因素共同作用而成。总体上滇东北地区晚奥陶世碳酸盐岩台地周围海洋环境缺氧及陆源碎屑输入量不断增加可能极大地抑制了碳酸盐生产,赫南特冰期发育时期的气候变冷可能是另一个抑制碳酸盐产率的因素。但从时间上看,碳酸盐沉积体系开始发生转变在大渡河组沉积期。该时期构造运动以及Boda事件促使海洋水体环境恶化,如陆源碎屑输入量持续增加,海洋水体的通氧量不断减少等,导致碳酸盐生产率不断降低。值得注意的是,晚奥陶世时期生物种类数量整体是在减少的,并且在第一幕的生物灭绝发生后,滇东北地区大渡河组微晶灰岩转变为砂质泥岩,在生物开始复苏后,观音桥层上段也开始沉积生屑灰岩;而在第二幕的生物灭绝开始,岩性也由观音桥层生屑灰岩转变为龙马溪组黑色页岩。综合分析认为,海洋环境恶化,海底氧化还原环境的频繁变化使得光合作用相关生物类群的大量消失,从而致使热带浅海碳酸盐生产工厂遭受破坏,台地顶部碳酸盐沉积物供应不足,导致碳酸盐岩台地的消亡(图5)。

    Figure 5.  Diagram illustrating the extinction patterns of a Late Ordovician carbonate platform in northeastern Yunnan province

  • (1) 临湘组—龙马溪组的沉积微相可划分为六类:含泥瘤状灰岩相、纹层状微晶灰岩相、微晶生屑灰岩相、纹层状钙质泥岩相、砂质泥岩和泥质砂岩相以及含钙质泥页岩和含钙质碳质泥岩相。归属于三类沉积亚相(深缓坡、浅缓坡以及局限滞留陆棚),并发现碳酸盐岩沉积在大渡河组沉积期开始减少。

    (2) 古海洋环境如古生产力、古氧化还原条件、陆源碎屑输入量、古海平面在这一时期发生了显著变化,波动频繁。

    (3) 海洋氧化还原环境变化使得光合作用生物的栖息地遭受了破坏,从而抑制了碳酸盐的生产,最终导致碳酸盐岩台地不断萎缩以至停止生长。同时,海平面变化、陆源碎屑输入量的增加、气候变化以及生物灭绝也起到相当重要的作用。

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