Origin of Cambrian Flat-Pebble Conglomerate Mounds in the North China Platform
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摘要: 目的 竹叶状灰岩通常被解释为风暴沉积,但其沉积过程,尤其是含竖直砾屑的竹叶状灰岩丘的成因,仍存在很大争议。 方法 对鲁西寒武系芙蓉统炒米店组的此类竹叶状灰岩开展了传统沉积学研究,以示其蕴含的复杂的沉积过程。 结果 该竹叶状灰岩发育在两中厚层鲕粒灰岩之间,以底平顶凸的丘形为特征,也见不规则形态。竹叶状砾屑是由先前沉积的薄板状球粒颗粒灰岩,被风暴引起的强水流或波浪破碎而成;这些砾屑在鲕粒灰岩硬底构造之上,由风暴混合流改造搬运,最终呈不连续的丘状或不规则状堆积起来。杂基中的化石碎屑、破碎的鲕粒、钙化微生物团块等也指示了高能动荡的水体环境。在竹叶状砾屑沉积时,微生物在其之上或之间生长、钙化,并将砾屑黏结,阻止了砾屑被再次改造而保存为一些竖直或倾斜的排列状态;同时钙化微生物黏结或障积更多的竹叶状砾屑,而最终形成大小不一的竹叶状丘或滩。竹叶状砾屑丘在沉积之后,其边缘和顶部不断地被强水流和波浪侵蚀,并被随之沉积的鲕粒覆盖。 结论 研究揭示了丘形竹叶状灰岩复杂动荡的沉积过程,指示其经历了多次风暴事件的沉积、侵蚀和改造。基于详细系统的沉积学特征,对竹叶状灰岩的成因解释,将对深时风暴的频率、强度及沉积过程等具有一定的指导意义。Abstract: Objective Intraformational carbonate breccias and conglomerates composed of flat intraclasts (often called “flat-pebble conglomerates”) are universal phenomena in mixed carbonate and siliciclastic deposits of Cambrian-Ordovician successions, suggesting unique paleoecologic, paleoceanographic, and paleoclimatic conditions during the Cambrian-Ordovician greenhouse periods. Flat-pebble conglomerates are often interpreted as storm deposits, yet their depositional processes, particularly those with mound-shaped geometry and edgewise clastic fabric, remain controversial. Methods This study revisited mound-shaped, edgewise flat-pebble conglomerates in the Furongian Chaomidian Formation (Shandong province, China) using traditional sedimentological measures to illustrate the potential complexity of their depositional processes. Results and Discussions Detailed field observations on the bed containing flat-pebble conglomerate mounds were conducted in six outcrops of the Jiulongshan section. The conglomerate mounds are present in between two oolite layers, sitting on a typical, smooth, and sharp hardground surface that truncates the underlying oolites. The conglomerate mounds are characterized by remarkable convex-up geometry with a relatively flat base, although irregular geometry also occurs in the outcrops. The conglomerate consists primarily of oligomictic pebble- to cobble-size clasts of finely laminated peloidal grainstone with subangular to subrounded corners, a few rounded homogeneous lime mudstone clasts with red rims, and a few bioclastic grainstone clasts and oolite clasts with glauconite grains. The matrix is composed of white, crudely laminated, and clotted microbialites (mainly micro-sparite) and orange dolomites. The matrix also contains many ooids (including broken and multigeneration ooids), fossil fragments (trilobites, echinoderms, brachiopods, and algae), peloids, and abundant glauconite grains. Fragments and debris of micritic Girvanella often occur in matrix. Calcified Girvanella is also identified along the clast edges. The crudely laminated microbialites occur locally on the top of clasts and show small-scale (a few to 10s of cm wide and a few cm thick) domal macrostructures. The conglomerates are clast-supported, and clasts are mostly disorganized without preferred orientation. In certain cases, however, intact thin-bedded peloidal grainstones with thin (a few mm thick) shales or horizontal clasts occur in the basal part, with more inclined and vertical clasts in the upper part. Both clasts and matrix grains are truncated along the upper boundaries of the breccia lenses. When the flat-pebble conglomerate mounds are as thick as the oolite bed, they show a flat and smooth surface, overlain by calcareous shale facies. Flat-pebble clasts were derived from the rip-up of thickly laminated to thinly bedded peloidal grainstones by strong currents and/or waves. The flat pebbles were transported from nearby and deposited as discrete dunes of various scales under the reworking of storm-induced combined flows. The abundant fossil fragments, broken ooids, and debris of calcified microbes in matrix of the conglomerates are collectively indicative of high-energy and strong-agitating conditions. During deposition of flat pebbles, microbes grew on top of and in between pebbles, acting as binding medium that prevented re-orientation of the edgewise clasts and further trapping flat pebbles, eventually forming flat-pebble mounds of various sizes. The flat-pebble mounds underwent substantial reworking by waves after deposition while ooids were being deposited. Conclusions This study illustrates the complex and dynamic depositional conditions for the mound-shaped flat-pebble conglomerates, suggesting multiple episodes of storm events. Detailed sedimentological studies on flat-pebble conglomerate can provide insights into frequency, intensity, and sedimentary processes of deep-time storm events.
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Key words:
- flat-pebble conglomerate /
- microbialite /
- storm deposit /
- Cambrian
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图 4 竹叶状灰岩丘共生岩相
(a)鲕粒灰岩B亚层顶部的硬底构造(箭头),硬底构造之上为含砾鲕粒灰岩;(b)竹叶状灰岩丘发育在硬底构造之上;(c)硬底构造之上发育的球粒颗粒灰岩亦被截切,并由含砾鲕粒灰岩覆盖;(d)硬底构造之上发育的球粒颗粒灰岩由竹叶状灰岩丘覆盖;(e,f)鲕粒灰岩顶部发育的对称浪成波痕构造;(g)亚层C竹叶状灰岩,砾屑多呈叠瓦状排列,顶部为一层球粒颗粒灰岩,且被截切(箭头);(h)鲕粒灰岩B亚层顶部硬底构造之上的竹叶状灰岩席,且其顶部被截切(蓝色箭头),此处硬底构造多被缝合线改造(白色箭头);(i)鲕粒灰岩B亚层顶部硬底构造之上的竹叶状灰岩透镜体,被竹叶状灰岩丘覆盖
Figure 4. Associated facies of the flat⁃pebble conglomerate mounds
hardgroud surface (arrows) at the top of oolite sublayer B, above which are planar cross⁃stratified gravelly oolites (a), flat⁃pebble conglomerate mound (b), and intact thin peloidal grainstone (c, d); (e, f) the top of oolite sublayer A shows symmetric wave ripples; (g) the entire oolite bed is underlain by limestone conglomerates with imbricated and horizontal, polymictic clasts; (h) thin, discontinuous (lens⁃shaped) limestone conglomerate within oolites, containing imbricated, red⁃rimmed clasts, overlain by gravelly oolites with a sharp boundary (blue arrows); (i) conglomerate lens, overlain by a flat⁃pebble conglomerate mound with a recognizable boundary (dash line)
图 5 竹叶状灰岩丘几何形态及边缘特征
(a,b)竹叶状灰岩在野外露头1和3呈丘形出露的三维形态及素描;(c)露头2发现的呈不规则状几何形态;(d)竹叶状灰岩丘边缘呈不规则状且被周围鲕粒灰岩截切,左边的小块已与竹叶状灰岩丘脱离;(e)鲕粒灰岩中产出的独立的不规则状竹叶状灰岩块体;(f,g)侧面和平面显示竹叶状灰岩丘具截然且平缓的顶面(硬底构造)
Figure 5. Geometry and margin of the flat⁃pebble conglomerate mounds
(a, b) three⁃dimensional (3D) exposure and schematic drawings of the mound⁃shaped flat⁃pebble conglomerate in outcrops 1 and 2; (c) highly irregular geometry of the flat⁃pebble conglomerate in outcrop 2; (d) irregular and sharp contact, with a chunk of flat⁃pebble conglomerate detached from the mound; (e) isolated, irregular⁃shaped flat⁃pebble conglomerate debris in oolite; (f, g) vertical section and plan view of the sharp, smooth upper surface (hardground) of the flat⁃pebble conglomerate mound
图 6 竹叶状灰岩砾屑和杂基特征
(a)主要含纹理状球粒颗粒灰岩砾屑,见少量具红色氧化圈的泥状灰岩和生物碎屑颗粒灰岩砾屑,以及鲕粒灰岩砾屑;(b~d)杂基中的叠层石;(e)叠层石交替出现的泥晶和亮晶方解石的纹层,见明显的泥晶化的钙化微生物团块;(f,g)砾屑上侧原地发育的葛万菌和似肾形菌;(h,i)杂基中的钙化葛万菌团块;(j)杂基中的破碎鲕粒和多期次鲕粒和海绿石颗粒等;(k)杂基中的三叶虫和钙藻等生物碎屑;(l)杂基局部被白云岩化
Figure 6. Characteristics of clasts and matrix of the flat⁃pebble conglomerate mound
(a) mostly subrounded peloidal grainstone clasts, with a few rounded, red⁃rimmed lime mudstone and bioclastic grainstone clasts, and an oolite clast; (b⁃d) convex⁃up laminated (stromatolitic) matrix; Note a sharp truncation surface (white arrow) by the overlying oolites in (d); (e) photomicrograph of stromatolitic matrix, with fragment of calcified microbes along the lamina; (f, g) calcified microbial filaments (Girvenalla and Renalcis) along the clast, indicating in situ growth of cyanobacteria; (h, i) fragments of calcified microbes in matrix; (j) broken and multigeneration ooids, fossil fragments, and glauconite grains in matrix; (k) fossil fragments (mainly calcareous algea and trilobites) in matrix; (l) dolomites in matrix
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